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Academic Glossary
A
Abductive Reasoning
A form of logical inference which starts with an observation or set of observations then seeks to find the simplest and most likely explanation. Unlike deduction (top-down) or induction (bottom-up), abduction is often used in qualitative research to generate new hypotheses from surprising facts.
Abstract
A brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article, allowing readers to quickly survey the contents. A well-written abstract typically includes the research purpose, methods, results, and conclusion, and is often the only part of the paper visible on paywalled databases.
Academic Integrity
The moral code and ethical policy of academia. This includes avoiding plagiarism, maintaining honesty in research standards, not fabricating data, and giving proper credit to the work of others through accurate citation.
Acceptance Rate
The percentage of manuscripts accepted for publication by a journal compared to the total number submitted. A lower acceptance rate (e.g., <10%) typically indicates a more prestigious and competitive journal.
Acknowledgement
A section in a research paper where authors thank individuals or institutions who contributed to the research but do not meet the criteria for authorship (e.g., funding agencies, technical assistants, or colleagues who proofread the draft).
Action Research
A philosophy and methodology of research generally applied in the social sciences (especially education). It seeks transformative change through the simultaneous process of taking action and doing research, which are linked together by critical reflection.
Altmetrics
“Alternative Metrics.” Non-traditional metrics proposed as an alternative to the Impact Factor. They measure the impact of research via online activity, such as mentions in news reports, blogs, social media (Twitter/X), and policy documents.
Annotated Bibliography
A list of citations to books, articles, and documents. Each citation is followed by a brief descriptive and evaluative paragraph (the annotation), the purpose of which is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the sources cited.
Appendix
Supplementary material at the end of a paper that is not essential to the text but provides further clarification. This often includes raw data tables, detailed mathematical proofs, or copies of the survey questionnaires used in the study.
Article Processing Charge (APC)
A fee charged to authors to make a work available open access in either an open access journal or a hybrid journal. This fee covers the costs of editorial management and hosting and is usually paid by the author’s institution or grant funder.
B
Background of Study
The section of a thesis or paper that sets the context for the research. It explains the historical or theoretical origins of the problem and why the research is necessary, leading logically into the Problem Statement.
Bias (Research Bias)
Any systematic error in the design, conduct, or analysis of a study that results in a mistaken estimate of an exposure’s effect on the risk of disease. Common types include Selection Bias, Confirmation Bias, and Publication Bias.
Bibliographic Manager
Software tools (like EndNote, Mendeley, or Zotero) used to collect, organize, and format citations and references. They integrate with word processors to automatically generate bibliographies in styles like APA or IEEE.
Bibliometrics
The statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles. Researchers use bibliometric methods to explore the impact of a field, the set of researchers, or a particular paper (e.g., citation analysis).
Blind Review
A method of peer review where the reviewers know the identity of the authors, but the authors do not know the identity of the reviewers. This is the most common form of peer review in the sciences.
Boolean Operators
Simple words (AND, OR, NOT) used as conjunctions to combine or exclude keywords in a database search (like Scopus or Google Scholar), resulting in more focused and productive results.
Bracketing (Epoche)
A qualitative research technique (specifically in phenomenology) where the researcher suspends their own beliefs, assumptions, and biases about a phenomenon to fully understand the participants’ experiences.
Brief Report
A short article type used to publish preliminary results, significant findings that do not require a full-length paper, or replications of previous studies. They undergo the same peer review process but have stricter word limits.
C
Case Study
A research strategy and an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. Case studies are often used in business, social sciences, and clinical research to provide in-depth understanding of a single “case” (person, group, or event).
Citation
A reference to a published or unpublished source. More than just giving credit, citations map the intellectual lineage of an idea and allow readers to verify the evidence supporting the author’s claims.
Cohort Study
A type of longitudinal study where a group of people who share a defining characteristic (a cohort) are followed over time to observe outcomes. It is commonly used in medicine to investigate the causes of disease.
Conceptual Framework
A visual or written product that explains, either globally or graphically, the main things to be studied—the key factors, concepts, or variables—and the presumed relationships among them. It is the “blueprint” of a research study.
Conference Proceedings
A collection of academic papers published in the context of an academic conference. In fields like Computer Science and Engineering, proceedings are often considered as prestigious as journals.
Confidence Interval (CI)
In statistics, a range of values so defined that there is a specified probability that the value of a parameter lies within it. A 95% CI means that if the study were repeated 100 times, the true result would fall within this range 95 times.
Conflict of Interest (COI)
A situation where an individual’s personal or financial interests might compromise their professional judgment. In publishing, authors must declare COIs (e.g., owning stock in a pharmaceutical company while testing its drug).
Control Group
Participants in an experiment who do not receive the experimental treatment or intervention. They provide a baseline that researchers compare to the experimental group to determine if the treatment had an effect.
Corresponding Author
The author who handles all communication with the journal during the submission and review process. They are responsible for signing copyright forms and are the point of contact for readers after publication.
Critical Review
A complete type of text (or a part of a larger text) where an author evaluates, summarizes, and interprets the literature on a topic. It goes beyond simple description to assess the strengths and weaknesses of previous research.
Cross-Sectional Study
A type of observational study that analyzes data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time (a “snapshot”), as opposed to a longitudinal study which follows the same subjects over a period of time.
D
Data Saturation
A point in qualitative research (e.g., interviews) when the researcher stops collecting data because no new information, themes, or insights are emerging from the participants.
Deductive Reasoning
A “top-down” approach to research where the researcher starts with a general theory, formulates a specific hypothesis, and then tests it with data. It is the standard approach in quantitative scientific research.
Dependent Variable
The variable being tested and measured in an experiment. It is “dependent” because it changes in response to the Independent Variable. In a study on how study time affects grades, the grade is the dependent variable.
Descriptive Statistics
Brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given data set, which can be either a representation of the entire or a sample of a population. They are broken down into measures of central tendency (mean, median) and measures of variability (spread).
Digital Object Identifier (DOI)
A unique alphanumeric string assigned to a document by the International DOI Foundation to provide a persistent link to its location on the Internet. It is the gold standard for citing online academic content.
Discourse Analysis
A research method for studying written or spoken language in relation to its social context. It aims to understand how language is used in real life situations to create meaning, power relations, or identity.
Dissertation
A long essay on a particular subject, especially one written as a requirement for the Doctor of Philosophy degree. In some countries (like the UK), “thesis” is used for PhD and “dissertation” for Masters, while in others (US), it is reversed.
Double-Blind Review
A peer review process where the identities of the authors are concealed from the reviewers, and vice versa. This is intended to reduce bias and focus evaluation strictly on the merit of the research.
Duplicate Submission
The unethical practice of submitting the same manuscript to two or more journals at the same time. Journals require that a paper is not under consideration elsewhere to prevent copyright conflicts and wasted reviewer time.
E
Editorial Board
A group of recognized experts in the field who guide the editorial policy of a journal. They assist the Editor-in-Chief in selecting reviewers and making final decisions on difficult manuscripts.
Effect Size
A quantitative measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon. While a “p-value” tells you if an effect exists, the “effect size” tells you how large or meaningful that effect is in the real world.
Embargo Period
A period of time (usually 6–24 months) set by publishers during which the accepted version of an article cannot be made publicly available in a repository. This allows publishers to recoup costs before the content becomes free.
Empirical Research
Research based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. It requires the collection of data (quantitative or qualitative) to prove a hypothesis.
Epistemology
The branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. In research, it refers to the researcher’s view on what constitutes acceptable knowledge (e.g., Objectivism vs. Constructivism) and influences the choice of methodology.
Ethics Committee (IRB)
Institutional Review Board (IRB) or Research Ethics Committee (REC). A committee established to review and approve research involving human subjects. They ensure the research is ethical, safe, and that participants have given informed consent.
Ethnography
A qualitative research method used in anthropology and sociology where the researcher immerses themselves in a specific community or organization to observe behavior and interactions from an “insider” perspective.
Exclusion Criteria
Characteristics that disqualify prospective subjects from inclusion in a study. These are defined clearly in the methodology to ensure the sample is safe and appropriate for the specific research question.
Experimental Design
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test a hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent variables. It involves strict control over variables to determine causality.
Exploratory Research
Research conducted for a problem that has not been studied more clearly, intended to establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improve the final research design. It helps determine the best research design, data-collection method and selection of subjects.
F
Fabrication
A severe form of research misconduct where a researcher makes up data or results and records or reports them. Unlike “error,” fabrication is intentional deception and leads to immediate retraction and career penalties.
Factor Analysis
A statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors. It is commonly used in psychology and social sciences to reduce large datasets.
Fair Use
A legal doctrine that permits limited use of copyrighted material without acquiring permission from the rights holders. In academia, this allows researchers to quote short passages from other works for criticism, comment, or teaching.
False Positive (Type I Error)
In statistical hypothesis testing, a false positive occurs when the null hypothesis is true, but you reject it. Essentially, it means concluding there is an effect or relationship when none actually exists.
Feasibility Study
An assessment of the practicality of a proposed plan or method. In research, this is often a small-scale preliminary study conducted to determine whether the main study is likely to be successful (e.g., checking if enough participants can be recruited).
Field Notes
Qualitative notes created by the researcher during the act of qualitative fieldwork to remember and record the behaviors, activities, events, and other features of an observation. They serve as primary data in ethnographic studies.
Figure Legend
A concise description or caption positioned below a figure (graph, chart, or image) in a manuscript. It must provide enough detail so the figure can be understood independently from the main text.
Focus Group
A qualitative research method involving a group interview where a moderator guides a discussion with a small group of people to gather their opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a specific product, service, or concept.
Full-Text
The complete version of an article, including all text, figures, tables, and references. This is distinct from the “Abstract” or “Citation” often found in search results. Access usually requires a subscription or institutional login unless the paper is Open Access.
Funder
The organization or agency (e.g., government body, university, private company) that provides the financial support for a research project. Authors are ethically required to disclose their funding sources in the “Acknowledgements” or “Funding” section.
G
Galley Proof
The final typeset version of a manuscript before it is published. It is sent to the author for a final check of layout, figures, and minor typographical errors. Major content changes are generally not allowed at this stage.
Gatekeeper
In qualitative research, a person who controls access to a research site or potential participants (e.g., a school principal, a tribal leader, or a manager). Gaining the trust of the gatekeeper is crucial for successful data collection.
Generalizability (External Validity)
The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to settings, people, times, and measures other than the specific ones studied. A study with high generalizability provides results relevant to the wider population.
Gold Open Access
A publishing model where the final version of an article is made freely and permanently accessible to everyone immediately upon publication. This usually requires the author to pay an Article Processing Charge (APC).
Grant Proposal
A document submitted to a funding agency requesting financial support for a research project. It details the significance of the project, the methodology, the budget, and the qualifications of the research team.
Grey Literature
Research that is either unpublished or has been published in non-commercial form. Examples include government reports, policy statements, working papers, and theses. It is valuable for systematic reviews to reduce publication bias.
Grounded Theory
A systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the construction of theories through methodical gathering and analysis of data. It operates inductively; the theory emerges *from* the data rather than testing an existing hypothesis.
Ghost Authorship
An unethical practice where someone who has made a substantial contribution to a research paper is not named as an author. This is common in industry-sponsored research where professional writers are used but not credited.
H
H-Index
An author-level metric that attempts to measure both the productivity and citation impact of the publications of a scientist or scholar. An h-index of 15 means the author has published at least 15 papers that have each been cited at least 15 times.
Hard Sciences
Disciplines that rely on experimental, empirical, and quantifiable data (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology). They are often contrasted with “soft sciences” (sociology, psychology), though the distinction is debated.
Harvard Style
A common author-date referencing style (e.g., “Smith, 2023”). It is widely used in the UK and Australia across various disciplines, particularly in the humanities and social and behavioral sciences.
Hawthorne Effect
A phenomenon where study participants modify their behavior or performance in response to their awareness of being observed. Researchers must account for this to ensure the validity of their results.
Heterogeneity
In systematic reviews and meta-analyses, this refers to the variation in study outcomes between different studies. High heterogeneity suggests the studies are too different to be combined into a single result.
Heuristic
A problem-solving approach or “rule of thumb” that is not guaranteed to be optimal or perfect, but is sufficient for the immediate goals. In research, heuristics serve as mental shortcuts to speed up data analysis.
Histogram
A graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data. It is an estimate of the probability distribution of a continuous variable (quantitative variable) and was first introduced by Karl Pearson.
Humanities
Academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture. This includes history, literature, philosophy, and languages. Research methods here are typically interpretive and analytical rather than experimental.
Hypothesis
A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. (e.g., “Students who sleep more will score higher.”)
Hybrid Journal
A subscription-based journal that allows authors the option to make their individual article Open Access upon payment of an Article Processing Charge (APC). This model “mixes” paid and free content.
I
i10-Index
A bibliometric score created by Google Scholar. It indicates the number of publications an author has written that have been cited by at least 10 other sources. It is a simpler metric than the h-index.
IEEE Style
The citation style of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. It uses a numeric system [1] in the text, corresponding to a numbered reference list at the end. It is the standard for engineering and computer science fields.
Impact Factor (IF)
A measure reflecting the yearly average number of citations to recent articles published in that journal. It is frequently used as a proxy for the relative importance of a journal within its field; journals with higher impact factors are often deemed more prestigious.
Imrad Format
The standard structure for scientific papers: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. This format allows readers to quickly find the specific information they are looking for without reading the entire paper.
Independent Variable
The variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable. In a study of how fertilizer affects plant growth, the amount of fertilizer is the independent variable.
Inductive Reasoning
A “bottom-up” approach to research where the researcher begins with specific observations and measures, detects patterns and regularities, formulates some tentative hypotheses, and finally develops general conclusions or theories.
Informed Consent
The process of getting permission from human subjects before involving them in research. Participants must understand the purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits of their involvement, and their right to withdraw at any time.
Institutional Repository
An online archive for collecting, preserving, and disseminating digital copies of the intellectual output of an institution (like a university). Depositing papers here (Green OA) is often required by university policy.
Inter-Rater Reliability
The degree of agreement among raters. It gives a score of how much homogeneity, or consensus, there is in the ratings given by judges. High reliability is crucial when multiple researchers are coding qualitative data.
Internal Validity
The extent to which a piece of evidence supports a claim about cause and effect, within the context of a particular study. High internal validity means you can confidently say the Independent Variable caused the change in the Dependent Variable.
J
Journal Citation Reports (JCR)
An annual publication by Clarivate Analytics that provides information about academic journals in the sciences and social sciences, including impact factors. It is the official source for “Impact Factor” data.
Justification of Study
A section in the Introduction (or Proposal) that explains why the research is important. It typically argues that the study fills a gap in the literature, solves a practical problem, or contributes to national policy.
Jargon
Specialized terminology associated with a particular field or area of activity. While necessary for precision in academic writing, excessive jargon can make a paper inaccessible to a broader audience or interdisciplinary readers.
K
Kappa Coefficient (Cohen’s Kappa)
A statistical measure of inter-rater reliability (agreement) for qualitative (categorical) items. It is generally thought to be a more robust measure than simple percent agreement calculation, as it takes into account the possibility of the agreement occurring by chance.
Keywords
A list of 3-6 words or phrases that capture the main topics of a research paper. They are essential for Search Engine Optimization (SEO) in databases like Scopus, helping other researchers find your work. They should be specific and relevant.
Knowledge Gap
A missing piece of information in the existing literature that a new research study aims to fill. Identifying a valid knowledge gap is the primary requirement for writing a Problem Statement in a PhD thesis.
Kurtosis
A statistical measure that defines how heavily the tails of a distribution differ from the tails of a normal distribution. In simpler terms, it identifies whether data are heavy-tailed (many outliers) or light-tailed (lack of outliers) relative to a normal distribution.
L
Latent Variable
A variable that is not directly observed but is inferred from other variables that are observed (directly measured). For example, “intelligence” is a latent variable inferred from test scores (observed variables).
Leading Question
A question in a survey or interview that prompts or encourages the desired answer. (e.g., “Don’t you agree that the policy is bad?”). Researchers must avoid these to prevent bias in their data collection.
Likert Scale
A psychometric scale commonly involved in research that employs questionnaires. It is the most widely used approach to scaling responses in survey research (e.g., “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree”).
Limitations
A section in the Discussion or Conclusion where the researcher acknowledges the weaknesses of their study (e.g., small sample size, short duration). Admitting limitations actually strengthens the credibility of the paper.
Linear Regression
A basic and commonly used type of predictive analysis. It attempts to model the relationship between two variables by fitting a linear equation (a straight line) to observed data.
Literature Review
A scholarly paper (or section of a thesis) that presents the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. It is not just a summary, but a critical synthesis of sources.
Longitudinal Study
A research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables (e.g., people) over a long period of time (i.e., years or decades). It is often used to study developmental trends across the life span.
M
Manuscript
The author’s version of a research paper before it has been published in a journal. Once accepted and formatted by the journal, it is referred to as an “article” or “paper.”
Mean, Median, Mode
Measures of central tendency. The **Mean** is the average; the **Median** is the middle value when data is ordered; and the **Mode** is the most frequently occurring value. Researchers choose the best one depending on if their data is skewed.
Meta-Analysis
A statistical technique for combining the findings from independent studies. It assesses the effectiveness of healthcare interventions by combining data from two or more randomized control trials. It is considered the highest level of evidence.
Methodology
The section of a research paper that answers the question “How was this done?”. It details the experimental design, participants, equipment, materials, variables, and procedures used, allowing others to replicate the study.
Mixed Methods
A research approach that combines both quantitative (numbers) and qualitative (words) data in a single study. This allows researchers to explore complex phenomena more fully than either method could alone.
Moderator Variable
A variable that affects the strength of the relationship between a dependent and independent variable. For example, if “Study Time” predicts “Grades,” but the relationship is stronger for “Seniors” than “Freshmen,” then “Year Level” is a moderator.
Multicollinearity
A phenomenon in multiple regression in which two or more predictor variables are highly correlated with one another. This makes it difficult to determine the individual effect of each variable on the outcome.
Multiple Regression
A statistical technique that uses several explanatory variables to predict the outcome of a response variable. It helps researchers determine which factors matter most (e.g., “Does age, diet, or exercise best predict heart health?”).
N
Narrative Review
A traditional literature review where the author selects, aggregates, and discusses literature on a specific topic. Unlike a systematic review, it does not follow a strict protocol and is more susceptible to author bias.
Non-Probability Sampling
A sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected. Examples include convenience sampling and snowball sampling.
Normal Distribution (Bell Curve)
A probability distribution that is symmetric about the mean, showing that data near the mean are more frequent in occurrence than data far from the mean. Most statistical tests (like t-tests) assume the data follows this distribution.
[Image of normal distribution bell curve with standard deviations]Novelty
The quality of being new, original, or unusual. In academic publishing, reviewers look for novelty—evidence that the paper provides a new insight, method, or dataset that has not been published before.
Null Hypothesis (H0)
The default assumption that there is no relationship between two measured phenomena (e.g., “The drug has no effect”). Research typically aims to reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis.
N-value (Sample Size)
The number of units (participants, observations) in a sample. It is usually denoted by the letter ‘n’. A larger ‘n’ generally leads to more reliable results and greater statistical power.
O
Observational Study
A study where researchers observe the effect of a risk factor, diagnostic test, treatment or other intervention without trying to change who is or isn’t exposed to it. Cohort studies and case-control studies are types of observational studies.
Ontology
A branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of reality and existence. In research, your ontological stance (e.g., “Is reality objective or subjective?”) determines whether you choose a quantitative or qualitative methodology.
Open Access (OA)
A set of principles and a range of practices through which research outputs are distributed online, free of cost or other access barriers. It increases the visibility and citation count of research.
Operational Definition
A clear, concise detailed definition of a measure. It defines a fuzzy concept (like “anxiety”) by how it is measured (e.g., “a score above 15 on the GAD-7 scale”) so that the research can be replicated.
ORCID iD
A persistent digital identifier that distinguishes you from every other researcher. It integrates with key research workflows such as manuscript and grant submission, and supports automated linkages between you and your professional activities.
Ordinal Data
A categorical, statistical data type where the variables have natural, ordered categories and the distances between the categories are not known. (e.g., rankings like “1st place, 2nd place” or “Low, Medium, High”).
Originality
The requirement that a research study must offer something new to the body of knowledge. This is a primary criterion for the award of a PhD and for acceptance in high-impact journals.
Outlier
A data point that differs significantly from other observations. Outliers may be due to variability in the measurement or may indicate experimental error; the latter are sometimes excluded from the data set.
P
P-Value
In statistical hypothesis testing, the p-value helps you determine the significance of your results. A small p-value (typically ≤ 0.05) indicates strong evidence against the null hypothesis, so you reject the null hypothesis.
Paradigm
A worldview underlying the theories and methodology of a particular scientific subject. In research, common paradigms include Positivism (objective reality) and Interpretivism (socially constructed reality).
Paraphrasing
Restating someone else’s ideas in your own words while retaining the original meaning. Effective paraphrasing is essential for avoiding plagiarism, but it must always be accompanied by a citation.
Participant Observation
A qualitative research method where the researcher not only observes the research participants but also actively engages in the activities of the research participants. This is common in anthropology and sociology.
Peer Review
The evaluation of work by one or more people with similar competence to the producers of the work (peers). It constitutes a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field.
Phenomenology
A qualitative research approach that focuses on the commonality of a lived experience within a particular group. The fundamental goal is to arrive at a description of the nature of the particular phenomenon (e.g., “grief”).
Pilot Study
A small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate feasibility, duration, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study design prior to performance of a full-scale research project.
Plagiarism
The practice of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them off as one’s own. In academia, this includes “Self-Plagiarism” (reusing your own previously published work without citation).
Population
The entire pool from which a statistical sample is drawn. A population may refer to an entire group of people, objects, events, hospital visits, or measurements. A sample is just a subset of the population.
Positivism
A philosophical system that holds that every rationally justifiable assertion can be scientifically verified or is capable of logical or mathematical proof. It creates the foundation for quantitative research.
Post-Hoc Analysis
Statistical analyses that were not specified before the data was seen. They are usually performed after a study has been completed to look for patterns that were not the primary focus.
Predatory Journal
An exploitative open-access publishing business model that charges publication fees to authors without checking articles for quality and legitimacy, and without providing editorial and publishing services.
Primary Source
Immediate, first-hand accounts of a topic, from people who had a direct connection with it. Examples include original research articles, diaries, speeches, interviews, and official records.
Probability Sampling
A sampling technique in which the researcher chooses samples from a larger population using a method based on the theory of probability (e.g., Simple Random Sampling). This allows for generalization.
Problem Statement
A concise description of an issue to be addressed or a condition to be improved upon. It identifies the gap between the current state (problem) and the desired state (goal) of a process or product.
Q
Qualitative Research
A scientific method of observation to gather non-numerical data. This type of research “refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and description of things” and not to their counts or measures.
Quantitative Research
The systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. The objective is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories, and hypotheses pertaining to phenomena.
Quartile (Journal Ranking)
Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4. A ranking of scientific journals based on Impact Factor. Q1 journals are in the top 25% of their field; Q4 are in the bottom 25%. Publishing in Q1/Q2 is often required for PhD graduation.
Quasi-Experimental Design
A type of research design that attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship. The main difference with a true experiment is that the groups are not randomly assigned (e.g., comparing two existing classrooms).
Questionnaire
A research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. It is the most common tool for survey research.
Quota Sampling
A non-probability sampling technique wherein the assembled sample has the same proportions of individuals as the entire population with respect to known characteristics, traits or focused phenomenon.
R
Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT)
A study design that randomly assigns participants into an experimental group or a control group. As the study is conducted, the only expected difference between the control and experimental groups in a randomized controlled trial (RCT) is the outcome variable being studied.
Range
The difference between the lowest and highest values. In {4, 6, 9, 3, 7}, the lowest value is 3, and the highest is 9, so the range is 9 – 3 = 6.
Raw Data
Data that has not been processed for use. A distinction is sometimes made between data and information to the effect that information is the end product of data processing. Raw data needs cleaning and analysis.
Reliability
The degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. If you measure the same thing twice with the same tool, you should get the same result (e.g., Test-Retest Reliability).
Replication
The repetition of a research study, generally with different situations and different subjects, to determine if the basic findings of the original study can be applied to other participants and circumstances.
Research Design
The overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem.
Research Gap
A topic or area for which missing or insufficient information limits the ability to reach a conclusion for a question. Finding a gap is the first step in creating a research proposal.
Response Rate
The number of people who answered the survey divided by the number of people in the sample. It is usually expressed as a percentage. A low response rate can bias the results.
Retraction
The removal of a published article from the scientific record. This happens when the data is found to be fraudulent, plagiarized, or contains errors so serious that the findings are no longer valid.
Review Article
An article that summarizes the current state of understanding on a topic. A review article surveys and summarizes previously published studies, rather than reporting new facts or analysis.
S
Sample Size (n)
The number of observations or replicates to include in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to make inferences about a population from a sample.
Sampling Error
The error caused by observing a sample instead of the whole population. The sampling error is the difference between a sample statistic used to estimate a population parameter and the actual but unknown value of the parameter.
Scope of Study
The parameters under which the study will be operating. The problem you seek to resolve will fit within certain parameters. Think of the scope as the domain of your research—what is in the domain, and what is not.
Scopus
A large abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature. Being “Scopus-indexed” is often a requirement for publication for PhD students in Malaysia and other developing nations.
Secondary Data
Data that was collected by someone else for another primary purpose. The existing data is then used for a new research question (e.g., using Census data or Medical Records).
Self-Plagiarism
The practice of reusing one’s own previous writings or data in a “new” written product without letting the reader know that this material has appeared elsewhere. It is considered unethical in academic publishing.
Semi-Structured Interview
A qualitative method of inquiry that combines a pre-determined set of open questions (questions that prompt discussion) with the opportunity for the interviewer to explore particular themes or responses further.
Significance Level (Alpha)
The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. For example, a significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a difference exists when there is no actual difference.
Simple Random Sampling
A subset of a statistical population in which each member of the subset has an equal probability of being chosen. A simple random sample is meant to be an unbiased representation of a group.
Standard Deviation
A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values. A low standard deviation indicates that the values tend to be close to the mean of the set, while a high standard deviation indicates that the values are spread out.
Systematic Review
A review of a clearly formulated question that uses systematic and explicit methods to identify, select, and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review.
T
T-Test
A statistical test that is used to compare the means of two groups. It is often used in hypothesis testing to determine whether a process or treatment actually has an effect on the population of interest, or whether two groups are different from one another.
Theoretical Framework
The structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research problem under study exists.
Thematic Analysis
A method for identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns (themes) within data. It minimally organizes and describes your data set in (rich) detail. It is widely used in qualitative research.
Thesis
A document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author’s research and findings. In some countries, “Thesis” is for Masters and “Dissertation” is for PhD.
Triangulation
The use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research to develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomena. It helps to validate the data through cross verification from two or more sources.
Turnitin
An internet-based plagiarism detection service. It checks submitted documents against its database and the content of other websites with the aim of identifying plagiarism. It provides a “Similarity Report.”
Type I Error
A “False Positive” error. It occurs when a null hypothesis that is actually true is rejected. It is asserting something is true when it is actually false.
Type II Error
A “False Negative” error. It occurs when a null hypothesis that is actually false is accepted (or fails to be rejected). It is failing to assert what is present, a miss.
U
Unit of Analysis
The major entity that is being analyzed in a study. It is the “who” or “what” that the researcher is studying. Common units include individuals (e.g., students), groups (e.g., schools), social artifacts (e.g., books), or geographical units (e.g., towns).
Univariate Analysis
The simplest form of statistical analysis. The analysis is carried out with the description of a single variable in terms of the applicable unit of analysis. For example, if the variable “age” was the subject of the activity, the researcher would look at only that one variable.
Unstructured Interview
A qualitative research method where the interview has no strict guidelines or pre-determined questions. It is more like a guided conversation, allowing the researcher to explore the respondent’s deep thoughts and feelings without imposing a structure.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
The address of a specific webpage or file on the Internet. In academic citations (APA/IEEE), if a DOI is not available, the URL must be included. It is crucial to check that the link is live before submission.
V
Validity
The extent to which a concept, conclusion, or measurement is well-founded and likely corresponds accurately to the real world. In research, validity determines whether the research truly measures what it was intended to measure.
Variable
Any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted. A variable may also be called a data item. Age, sex, business income and expenses, country of birth, capital expenditure, class grades, eye color and vehicle type are examples of variables.
Variance
A statistical measurement of the spread between numbers in a data set. It measures how far each number in the set is from the mean and therefore from every other number in the set. It is the square of the standard deviation.
Verification
The process of establishing the truth, accuracy, or validity of something. In qualitative research, verification refers to the mechanisms used during the process of research to incrementally contribute to ensuring reliability and validity and, thus, the rigor of a study.
Viva Voce (The “Viva”)
The final oral examination for a PhD or Master’s candidate. The student must defend their thesis before a panel of examiners (usually one internal and one external). The examiners question the student to ensure the work is their own and that they understand the field.
Voluntary Participation
A fundamental ethical principle of research which requires that people not be coerced into participating in research. This is especially relevant where researchers rely on “captive audiences” for their subjects—prisons, universities, and places like that.
W
Web of Science (WoS)
A platform consisting of several literature search databases designed to support scientific and scholarly research. It is the primary competitor to Scopus and is historically considered the most selective and prestigious index for high-impact journals (formerly known as ISI).
Weighted Mean
A mean where some values contribute more than others. It is calculated by multiplying the weight (or probability) associated with a particular event or outcome with its associated quantitative outcome and then summing all the products together.
White Paper
An authoritative report or guide that informs readers concisely about a complex issue and presents the issuing body’s philosophy on the matter. It is meant to help readers understand an issue, solve a problem, or make a decision. In academia, these are often “Grey Literature.”
Within-Subjects Design
A type of experimental design in which all participants are exposed to every treatment or condition. For example, testing the same group of students *before* and *after* a training workshop.
Word Count
The total number of words in a document. Academic journals have strict word count limits (e.g., 3,000–8,000 words). Exceeding these limits is a common reason for immediate “Desk Rejection.”
Z
Z-Score (Standard Score)
A statistical measurement that describes a value’s relationship to the mean of a group of values. Z-score is measured in terms of standard deviations from the mean. If a Z-score is 0, it indicates that the data point’s score is identical to the mean score.